Technostress in the Digital Era

The rapid advancement of digital technologies has led to a fundamental transformation in modern work environments, re-shaping the way employees interact with technology. These advancements have brought significant opportunities for enhancing efficiency, communication, and safety, especially in sectors like aviation. However, alongside these advantages, new challenges have emerged, particularly the psychological and organizational stressors associated with constant technological changes.

One of the most prominent issues is technostress, a specific type of stress induced by the fast-pace of technological evolution and the pressure to adapt to new digital systems. In technology-dependent industries such as aviation, understanding and managing technostress is crucial, as it can directly impact employee well-being, operational safety, and efficiency. As digitalization continues to accelerate, the need for effective strategies to mitigate technostress and support employees in adapting to new technologies becomes increasingly important. This is particularly true in aviation, where the integration of artificial intelligence (AI), automation, and complex digital systems further complicates the work environment, intensifying both the cognitive and emotional demands placed on professionals. In this context, as the effects of digitalization on the workforce become more pronounced, the rapid evolution of technology and the constant need for adaptation introduce new psychological challenges, such as technostress, particularly in technology-dependent sectors.

Digitalization represents a fundamental transformation process that is centered on technology. Its origins are rooted in the rapid development of digital technologies and their increasing spread into all areas of life. In the European Union, for instance, the employment rate of ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) staff in 2025 will increase by 64% compared to 2018 [1], reflecting the scope of this digital transformation. Alongside its economic impacts, digitalization has also produced significant consequences on workers’ psychosocial working environments. These consequences can be either negative, by increasing stress related to technology, or positive, by improving work organization and reducing some psychosocial risks through the use of beneficial digital tools. The use of ICT provides several advantages for employees, including increased productivity, instant access to information, enhanced safety, remote working opportunities, environmental benefits, access to customer data, and the ability to deliver innovative services. However, the disadvantages include longer working hours, work-life imbalance, and health problems, including stress. Another significant disadvantage is the constant need for updates and adaptation to technological advancements, which creates complexity and stress for employees.

Technostress refers to the psychological and physiological negative responses that individuals may experience when working intensively with ICTs [2]. It is a specific type of stress caused by the fast-paced technological changes and the pressure to use digital technologies effectively. As digital technologies evolve and become more embedded in professional and personal life, the levels of technostress experienced by employees tend to increase. In particular, the fear of falling behind in the internet age has created a compulsion for individuals to stay continuously connected online, leading to problematic behaviors such as techno-addiction, which in turn exacerbates technostress.

The concept of technostress was first introduced by Craig Brod in 1984, who defined it as a modern adaptation disease resulting from an individual’s inability to cope with new computer technologies in a healthy manner [3]. Technostress manifests when individuals perceive that they lack the skills required to use computers effectively at work or when they feel overwhelmed by the constant demands for technological adaptation. Several factors contribute to the emergence of technostress. These include technical problems related to human-machine interaction, inadequate user-friendliness of systems, and the need to acquire new skills. Rapid changes in technology, insufficient employee training, increased workload, lack of standardization in technologies, and the unreliability of software and hardware systems also play a crucial role.


In recent years, developments in automation, data analytics, AI, and machine learning have further expanded the capabilities of technological systems. While these technologies offer remarkable benefits in daily life and professional environments, they also bring significant challenges. The Fourth Industrial Revolution, a neologism describing the rapid technological advancements of the 21st century, has intensified the integration of digital technologies into workplaces. Although this integration often enhances efficiency and productivity, it also generates negative outcomes, such as environmental impacts, health issues, and psychosocial stress, including technostress. Using complex and constantly evolving technological systems can be inherently stressful. This paradigm shift is not easily internalized by employees, leading to feelings of anxiety, hesitation, and frustration, and ultimately resulting in higher levels of technostress. Technostress is multidimensional, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and mental well-being. In many cases, inadequate training and lack of ongoing support activities after the implementation of new technologies contribute significantly to the development of technostress. While technology is generally perceived as a tool that accelerates processes, it also imposes new responsibilities on individuals and creates expectations for continuous adaptation. Employees are increasingly expected to update their technological skills to keep pace with the changing environment. This pressure leads to psychological challenges such as anxiety and stress. Stress, in general, results from external and internal pressures that create a feeling of being overwhelmed. It can manifest through emotional reactions such as tension, worry, and fear. Technostress, as a modern stress type, originates from the difficulty of adapting to computer technologies and the inability to manage them effectively. It affects individuals by causing anger, restlessness, and anxiety, as well as physiological symptoms [4-6].


Technostress is commonly explained through five dimensions. Techno-overload describes situations where technology forces employees to work faster and manage multiple information flows, leading to stress, interruptions, and loss of focus. Techno-invasion refers to the expectation of being constantly available, which disrupts the balance between work and personal life and causes frustration. Techno-complexity occurs when employees feel inadequate due to the complicated features and terminology of new technologies, creating stress. Techno-insecurity is related to the fear of losing one’s job to others who are more skilled in using technology, increasing anxiety. Techno-uncertainty reflects the discomfort caused by frequent updates and changes in technology, leading to ongoing stress and frustration [6].

From a theoretical perspective, technostress can be related to several models. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), developed by Davis in 1989, is among the most referenced frameworks [7]. According to TAM, the acceptance and use of technology by individuals are influenced mainly by two factors: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. If an employee perceives a technology as useful and easy to use, the likelihood of adopting that technology increases. However, when technological systems are perceived as complex or non-user-friendly, technostress levels tend to rise. In addition to TAM, Person-Environment Fit Theory can also be applied to explain technostress. According to this theory, stress occurs when there is a misfit between the individual and the environment [8], including technological environments. A mismatch between technological demands and an individual’s abilities or resources results in stress responses, including technostress. The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping proposed by Lazarus and Folkman also offers a relevant framework [9]. This model suggests that stress is the result of the appraisal of demands as exceeding one’s resources and capabilities. When employees perceive that they cannot cope with technological changes or the pressures associated with ICTs, technostress emerges.

Technostress has significant effects on both individual employees and organizations. On the individual level, technostress often causes emotional and psychological problems [2]. Employees may experience increased anxiety, fear, and feelings of doubt when they are unable to cope with new technologies. Continuous exposure to complex systems can lead to mental fatigue, reduced well-being, low morale, and a lack of motivation. Many employees facing technostress report a decline in job satisfaction and a decrease in overall work productivity. In addition, technostress can negatively affect personal performance, making it harder for employees to meet work expectations. Over time, these effects may also weaken organizational commitment, causing employees to feel less connected and loyal to their companies. From an organizational perspective, technostress can have even broader consequences. Research shows that it reduces job satisfaction, lowers productivity, and decreases organizational loyalty among employees [4, 6] . Workers affected by technostress are more likely to experience burnout, which leads to high turnover intentions. In other words, many employees may plan to leave their jobs due to the continuous pressure and stress caused by technological demands. Moreover, technostress has been linked to various physical health problems, such as sleeping difficulties, headaches, irritability, stomach issues, and cardiovascular diseases. These health problems not only reduce individual performance but also increase organizational costs related to absenteeism, medical leave, and healthcare support.


The aviation sector is a socio-technical system characterized by intense human-technology interaction [10]. The safe operation of thousands of daily flights depends on the effective coordination between human expertise and advanced technologies. Professionals such as pilots, air traffic controllers, aircraft maintenance staff, cabin crew, dispatchers, and safety inspectors work continuously with highly technical systems. In aviation, technology is deeply embedded in core operations, including navigation, communication, automation, air traffic management, and safety control systems. As digital technologies, AI, and automation advance, the aviation environment becomes increasingly complex. Although these advancements enhance safety, efficiency, and capacity, they also create new challenges for human operators, making stress management more critical. Within the broader stress concept, technostress has emerged as a growing concern in aviation. Sources of technostress include the pressure to learn new digital systems, fear of technological failure, constant adaptation to updated procedures, and information overload.


Studies have shown that approximately 30% of pilots and technicians experience technostress [11], while moderate levels have been found among airport ground service employees [12]. Research with 331 aircraft maintenance personnel revealed that technological overload and complexity significantly affect employee productivity [13]. Other studies confirmed that while technological advancements improve productivity, they also increase stress, especially impacting team productivity when employees face high role overload or sensitivity to equity [14]. Similarly, another study conducted with 402 participants from the aviation sector found that technostress had a significant impact on decision-making processes [15]. These findings indicate that technostress has multifaceted effects on employee performance in aviation. In a sector where technological systems evolve rapidly, technostress poses a significant risk to both safety and operational performance. With the growing integration of AI in aviation, new complexities are emerging. AI applications in areas like air traffic management, predictive maintenance, autonomous flight, and crew resource management heighten cognitive workloads and emotional stress, particularly in safety-critical tasks.


As aviation increasingly relies on evolving digital systems, technostress has become a critical issue impacting employee well-being and organizational performance. The continuous introduction of new technologies places significant cognitive and emotional demands on professionals. If not managed properly, these pressures can reduce job satisfaction, lower productivity, and increase safety risks. Addressing technostress requires a comprehensive approach, including continuous training, user-friendly system design, strong support structures, clear communication strategies, and the promotion of psychological safety. Involving employees in technology development processes can also foster acceptance and reduce resistance. Managing technostress is essential for maintaining employee health, operational efficiency, and high safety standards. As digital transformation continues, prioritizing human-centered strategies will be key to sustainable success.